Measurement of electrical energy is of great importance in various areas, as it provides control and optimization of energy consumption, technical monitoring and diagnostics of equipment, efficient use of energy resources, accounting and settlements for consumed electricity, etc. When measurement of energy, the amount of energy consumed over a certain period of time is determined. Accurate energy measurement helps to identify energy-consuming processes or equipment and make decisions about modernization or changing the operating mode to reduce costs. Electric energy meters allow you to accurately record the amount of energy consumed. Standards of electric power and energy are used to calibrate and verify electrical energy measuring instruments. They have a different structural structure, which ensures the reproduction of various practically used units of measurement of electric energy. International comparisons of national standards of electric power and energy are carried out, which become the basis for the calibration and measurement capabilities (CMC) of national laboratories. For measurements of active and reactive alternating current electrical energy at power frequency, high-precision standards are used, which are built on the basis of a traditional structural scheme. Only a small number of laboratories of national metrology institutes and designated institutes have published CMC records in the Key Comparison Database (KCDB) of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) for the measurement of active and reactive electrical energy. These laboratories have measurement uncertainties within quite wide limits over a wide range of energy values: for active energy from 16 to 700 ppm; for reactive energy from 16 to 400 ppm.
- A. Brandolini and A. Gandelli, “Power and Energy Measurements,” Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS), Electrical Engineering, vol. II, https://www. eolss.net/ebooklib/bookinfo/electrical-engineering.aspx.
- W. Yang et al., “Analysis of factors influencing electric energy measurement in power systems”, AIP Advances 1 February 2024; 14 (2): 025032, doi: 10.1063/5.0190948.
- A. Babuta et al., “Power and energy measurement devices: A review, comparison, discussion, and the future of research,” Measurement, vol. 172, 2021, 108961, doi: 10.1016/j.measurement.2020.108961.
- E. Buzac, “Trends in electrical energy measurement and the performance of modem electricity meters," 2012 International Conference and Exposition on Electrical and Power Engineering, Iasi, Romania, 2012, pp. 783-786, doi: 10.1109/ICEPE.2012.6463837.
- H. Li et al., “Research on Model Construction of Electric Energy Metering System Based on Intelligent Sensor”, Advances in Mathematical Physics, 2023, 1296165, 8 p., doi: 10.1155/2023/1296165.
- CIPM MRA-G-11, “Measurement comparisons in the CIPM MRA. Guidelines for organizing, participating and reporting,” BIPM, 2021.
- CIPM MRA-G-13, “Calibration and measurement capabilities in the context of the CIPM MRA. Guidelines for their review, acceptance and maintenance,” BIPM, 2022.
- Skórkowski A. et al., “The Errors of Electronic Energy Meters That Measure Energy Consumed by LED Lighting,” Energies 15, 2022, no. 9: 3254, doi: 10.3390/en15093254.
- Bartolomei L. et al., “Testing of Electrical Energy Meters Subject to Realistic Distorted Voltages and Currents,” Energies, 13, 2020, no. 8, doi: 10.3390/en13082023.
- R. Wanga and J. Yuan, “Study on electrical energy meter for energy measuring under harmonics condition”, International Conference on Advanced Electronic Science and Technology (AEST 2016), December 2016, pp. 311–316, doi: 10.2991/aest-16.2016.40.
- L. D. Jovanović, “A Novel TDM-Based High-Precision Wattmeter,” IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement, vol. 66, no. 6, pp. 1083-1088, June 2017, doi: 10.1109/TIM.2017.2653458.
- Y. Baghzouz and O. T. Tan, “Harmonic Analysis оf Induc- tion Watthour Meter Performance,” IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-104, no. 2, pp. 398-406, Feb. 1985, doi: 10.1109/TPAS.1985.319055.
- The BIPM key comparison database (KCDB). Available at: http://kcdb.bipm.org.
- Velychko O., et al., “Final report on GULFMET supplementary comparison of AC energy (GULFMET.EM-S5),” Metrologia, vol. 57, 2020, issue 1A, 01003, doi: 10.1088/0026-1394/57/1A/ 01003.
- CIPM MRA, “Mutual Recognition of National Measu- rement Standards, of Calibration and Measurement Certifi- cates issued by National Metrology Institutes,”. BIPM, 2003.
- CIPM MRA-G-12, “Quality management systems in the CIPM MRA Guidelines for monitoring and reporting,” BIPM, 2021.
- JСGM100, “Evaluation of measurement data – Guide to the expression of uncertainty in measurement (GUM),” BIPM, 2008.